Beginnings of Jaina Iconography

The article "Beginnings of Jaina Iconography" by U. P. Shah examines the archaeological and literary origins of Jaina image-worship, arguing that its beginnings can be assigned at least to the Mauryan age, c. 3rd century B.C., supported by the Lohanipur statue discovered by Jayaswal. The text notes that prehistoric sites and Indus-Valley seals, such as those from Mohenjo-Daro, do not definitively attest to the antiquity of Jaina art due to the uncertainty of their symbols and script. While Jaina traditions ascribe the first twenty-two Tirthankaras to a period millions of years before Christ, modern criticism accepts only the last two, Parsvanatha and Varddhamana (Mahavira), as real historical personages. The article discusses the possibility of a sandalwood portrait statue of Mahavira, known as the Jivantasvami-pratima, being prepared during his lifetime, with references to this tradition found in texts like the Vasudevahindi and the Avasyaka-carni. However, regular worship of images and shrines may be somewhat later, though not later than the Lohanipur torso, as Mahavira is reported to have stayed in Yaksa-ayatanas rather than worshipping images of earlier Tirthankaras. The Jina image is suggested to have the ancient Yaksa statues as its prototype, with the Yaksa-Naga cult influencing Jaina worship. The article also highlights the close similarity between Jina and Buddha images, suggesting Buddhism could have been influenced by Yaksa and Tirthankara worship. The earliest known Buddha image hailing from Gandhara is considered a mere accident, and the Mauryan torso from Lohanipur proves the authenticity of Jaina traditions of image-worship and the existence of an earlier model for Jina and Buddha images in Magadha. Literary evidence must be weighed with caution since the available texts of Jaina canonical works are said to have followed the text of the second Council (vacana) at Valabhi, which met in the latter half of the fifth century A.D. However, references to worship of images and relics may be as old as the Mathura Council, which met in the beginning of the fourth century A.D. The article further discusses the Jaina image as a cult-object and notes that the Lohanipur site is a continuation of Mauryan sites at Kumarahar and Bulandibag near Patna, where highly polished torsos were revealed. The belief in twenty-four Tirthankaras is discussed in relation to various Jaina canonical texts, such as the Kalpa-satra, the Samavayanga-suira, the Pravacana-saroddhara, the Caturvimsati-stava, the Nayadhamma-kahao, the Sthanariga-satra, and the Avasyaka-niryukti, indicating that this belief existed in the beginnings of the Christian era and probably dates from a century or two earlier. The article also covers Jina worship at Mathura during the Kushana period, with evidence of Jaina sculptures from Kankali Tila and adjoining sites showing the prevalence of stupa-worship from at least the second century B.C. The Jaina stupa at Kankali Tila is regarded as a stupa of Suparsvanatha or Parsvanatha, with antiquities dating from about the second or first century B.C. to the end of the Kushana period. These antiquities attest to the existence of worship of the stupa, caitya-tree, dharma-cakra, ayagapatas, eight auspicious symbols, and other elements among the Jainas. Images of Tirthankaras represented in standing and sitting attitudes show no trace of drapery, establishing that the Digambara and Svetambara schism had come into being in the first or second century A.D., but the final crisis in the differentiation of Tirthankara icons had not yet taken place. The article notes the presence of pratima sarvatobhadrika sculptures from Mathura, dating from the Kushana period, and mentions an image of Sarasvati from this period. Incidents from the lives of Tirthankaras and reliefs depicting scenes from Jaina mythology seem to have existed in Jaina art at Mathura, as evident from figures depicting

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