The World of Life according to the Jaina Literature

J. C. Sikdar’s paper explores how Jain Āgamas depict the living world and develops a proto‑ecological perspective. At first glance Jaina texts seem to describe a bewildering variety of plants and animals, each going its own way, yet closer study shows that all organisms share basic needs for survival—food, space and reproduction. The author notes that living beings have evolved into numerous forms adapted to particular environments; each organism tolerates specific ranges of moisture, wind, sunlight and temperature and is adapted not only to physical conditions but also to the biotic environment of other plants and animals. Organisms are inter‑related through evolutionary descent and ecological interactions, and one organism may provide food or shelter for another or produce substances harmful to it. Using examples from the Sutrakṛtāṅga and other Āgamas, Sikdar argues that Jaina biology recognises that all life forms are interdependent. By studying anatomical and biochemical similarities, the distribution of organisms and their embryological histories, Jain scholars inferred that a sort of organic evolution has occurred. The author stresses that organisms are fitted to their habitats—water for aquatic beings, land for terrestrial and air for aerial—and that this fitness implies ecological niches and interdependence. A major part of the paper deals with classification. Jainācāryas set up systems of classification based on natural relationships. Organisms are grouped according to evolutionary origin, and the resulting taxonomies resemble the modern division into species, genera and phyla. Living beings are categorised by the number of senses they possess—ekendriya (one‑sensed), dvindriya (two‑sensed), trindriya (three‑sensed), caturindriya (four‑sensed) and pañcendriya (five‑sensed) by habitat: jalacara (aquatic), sthalacara (terrestrial) and khecara (aerial) organisms. The Jaina canon lists about 739 plants and over 250 animals and includes accounts of birds, snakes, bacteria and microscopic organisms. Distinctions between plants and animals are drawn, with vanaspati (plants) covering trees, shrubs and vines and paśu (animals) covering both wild and domestic creatures such as lions, cows, frogs and fish. Sikdar concludes that Jain thinkers viewed the living world as an interconnected whole and recognised ecological relationships long before modern biology. Their classifications and descriptions imply an understanding of adaptation and organic evolution, and their emphasis on interdependence anticipates ecological thought. The paper thus demonstrates the richness of Jaina biology and its relevance to modern discussions of ecology and evolution.

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