Foreign Elements in Jaina Literature
Summary
Dr. Umakant Premanand Shah’s article “Foreign Elements in Jaina Literature” investigates the presence of non‑Indian words, concepts and deities in Jain texts. Shah builds on previous scholarship on foreign words in Sanskrit literature, particularly studies that trace the Asura battle cry “Helayo” to Babylonian or Hebrew origins. He notes that the Satapatha Brahmana contains variants such as “hailo” and argues that this exclamation entered Indian tradition via contacts with Western Asia. In Jainism the syllables “Hili” and “Ili,” used as tantric seed sounds (bīja), may derive from the Semitic divine name “El”. Shah cites the Śrīmantra (also called Gaṇīvijjā), a Jain incantation believed to have been transmitted from Mahāvīra’s disciple Gautama, which incorporates the bīja Hili and has been preserved in various editions. He observes that these mantras were associated with specific goddesses and rites for dream interpretation and divination. The article further surveys Jain tantric texts such as the Sarvamantra‑kalpa, illustrating how other bīja syllables—hīṃ, līṃ, niṃ, and diṃ—may have arisen from foreign linguistic influences. Shah discusses commentaries by Merutuṅga and contemporary scholars that attempt to interpret these syllables and notes that their original meanings were already forgotten in medieval times. Beyond mantras, he identifies foreign deities referenced in Jain texts. For example, goddesses named Timisakā or Timisikā are identified with the Greek Artemis. Other passages mention names associated with Babylonian or Greek divinities. The article points out that such borrowings likely occurred through trade and cultural contact between India and West Asia during the early centuries CE. Shah concludes that Jain literature, especially its tantric corpus, reflects a syncretism that incorporated and reinterpreted foreign words and deities. This study encourages further research into cross‑cultural influences in Indian religious traditions and highlights the need to examine the transmission of mantras and ritual practices across linguistic boundaries.
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Conclusion
Shah concludes that several seed syllables and god‑names in Jain mantras derive from foreign sources, notably Semitic and Greek languages. The adoption of these elements underscores the permeability of early Indian religious traditions to external influences. By tracing such borrowings, scholars can gain insight into historic trade routes, cultural exchanges and the development of tantric practices in Jainism.