Revival of Sramana Dharma in the Later Vedic Age

Jyoti Prasad Jain’s article situates the revival of the Śramaṇa Dharma during the Later Vedic Age (c. 1400–600 BCE) against a backdrop of ritualism and social change. During this period Vedic ritual became highly elaborate; priests memorised and classified hymns into collections and systems of sacrifices dominated religious life. However, parallel currents of criticism arose among ascetics and householders who questioned the violence of animal sacrifices and the extravagant consumption of resources. The article traces how the term śramaṇa came to denote individuals who “labour, toil or exert themselves for a religious purpose” and later referred to heterodox ascetics such as Jain munis and Buddhist bhikkhus. Jain discusses evidence from the Mahābhārata and Purāṇas, noting how characters like Kṛṣṇa and Balarāma are influenced by the twenty‑second Tīrthankara Neminātha. The story of Neminatha’s renunciation at the sight of animals awaiting slaughter for his wedding feast – widely known in Jain tradition – exemplifies opposition to violence and presages the śramaṇa ethic of ahimsa. The article describes how heroes such as Kṛṣṇa and Balarāma refused to perform bloody sacrifices, thereby setting a precedent for non‑violent ritual. Jain further analyses Upaniṣadic passages where kings and brahmins debate the merits of renunciation versus sacrificial ritual, arguing that such dialogues reflect the ascendancy of śramaṇa ideals. He discusses the popularity of vows such as fasting (vrata), meditation (samayika) and non-possession, and interprets the term kṣatriya as originally referring to ascetics who “conquered” passions rather than political warriors. Archaeological evidence from painted grey ware sites suggests the existence of early hermitages and non‑sacrificial rituals. The article also examines the later emergence of organised Jain and Buddhist monastic orders, noting that these traditions institutionalised the practices of earlier śramaṇa groups. Citing later Jain texts, Jain argues that Mahāvīra and his predecessors were heirs to an ancient śramaṇa heritage that revived non‑violent spirituality in a period dominated by ritualism. By highlighting the historical interplay between Vedic and śramaṇa traditions, the article suggests that Indian religious history is shaped by dialogue between ritualists and renunciants, with the śramaṇa movement playing a formative role in articulating ethical principles such as ahimsa, aparigraha and anekānta. The revival of śramaṇa dharma thus marks a pivotal shift from sacrificial orthodoxy to personal austerity and compassion.

Summary reviewed by a volunteer editor.