Evolution of Jaina Sangha

J. C. Sikdar’s “Evolution of Jaina Sangha” continues his study of how Jain monastic orders (Sanghas, Ganas and Gacchas) adapted to changing environments, socio‑economic conditions and doctrinal needs. The article argues that since the time after Mahavira, Jaina monastic groups have frequently altered their organisational structures and relocated to new habitats to secure pure food (subhikṣā) and suitable living spaces. This adaptive radiation produced diverse monastic forms among both the Śvetāmbaras and Digambaras: Tapāgaccha, Kharataragaccha, Mūrtipūjaka, Sthānakavāsin, Terāpanthin, Deva‑gana, Nandi‑gana and others. Some of these sects, despite superficial differences, developed convergent organisational structures because they inhabited similar ecological zones; the author calls this “convergent evolution” of the Jaina Sangha. For example, Tapāgaccha in Rajasthan and Gujarat and Senāgana in South India evolved comparable monastic practices, while groups like Kharataragaccha and Tapāgaccha have similar ascetic rules. Sikdar traces the lineage of the anti‑image‐worshipping Lonka Gaccha, showing how its monastic forms gave rise successively to Sthānakavāsin and Terāpanthin sects; monks from these orders later formed new sects or readapted to image worship, illustrating the complexity of monastic evolution. He emphasises that adaptation is not autonomous: Sanghas influence each other through competition for requisites, doctrinal exchange and missionary activities. Cross‑dependencies arise among Gacchas, Sakhas (branches), Kulas and Anvayas. Monks often travel to other orders to collect alms and propagate their teachings, planting “seeds” of new doctrines which germinate in the host communities. The article also discusses climatic and ritual adaptations, such as the paijjuṣaṇa cāturmāsa fast, which confines monks to one place during the rainy season and leads to further organisational changes. In the conclusion, Sikdar turns to broader historical reflections. He notes that the supremacy of the twin institutions of dharma (religion) and saṃgha (monastic order) in Jain society is attested by their resilience and creative solutions to religious problems. However, reconstructing the early chronology of the Jaina Sangha—from Ṛṣabha to Mahavira—is difficult due to lack of contemporaneous evidence. Epigraphic records from Mathura confirm the existence of early monastic orders and post‑Mahaviran texts like the Kalpasūtra and Sthavirāvalī list branches under early ācāryas. The article sketches how the unified Nirgrantha Sangha under Mahavira later differentiated into eastern (Śvetāmbara) and western (Digambara) branches, with schisms taking centuries to resolve. Over the last millennium the Sangha has continued to branch and mutate, and today’s monastic map is the result of innumerable migrations and adaptations. Sikdar concludes that the evolution of the Jaina Sangha is an ongoing process governed by social, economic and political forces, and he urges further historical research into its origins, regional variations and future trajectory.

Summary reviewed by a volunteer editor.