The Origin and Development of Numerals

Sukumar Ranjan Das

The Origin and Development of Numerals

Vol. 3 · No. 2June - 1927pp. 356–375English

Summary

The decimal numeral system is so ubiquitous today that its complex history is often forgotten. This essay traces the evolution of numerals from ancient times to the adoption of the so‑called “Arabic” numerals in Europe. It begins with the notation used in Vedic literature, where numbers were expressed through words or tally marks, and notes that the earliest Indian inscriptions employ additive systems similar to those of Rome. The article then examines the invention of place‑value notation in India, which allowed a finite set of symbols to represent arbitrarily large numbers. Particular attention is paid to the concept of śūnya (zero), both as a numerical placeholder and as an abstract number; texts of Brahmagupta and Bhāskara II are cited to show how Indian mathematicians theorised about zero and negative numbers. The article discusses how Indian numerals were transmitted to the Arab world through trade and scholarship and how Persian and Arab mathematicians adopted and modified the symbols. It highlights the role of scholars such as al‑Khwārizmī in popularising the system and explains that the term “Arabic numerals” is a misnomer because the symbols originated in India. The essay also surveys numeral forms found on inscriptions and palm‑leaf manuscripts, tracing the gradual stylisation of the digits into the familiar shapes of 1–9. Finally, it describes the introduction of the numerals to Europe via Andalusia and Provence and recounts the resistance of medieval scholars to the new notation. Through this historical survey, the article illustrates how a simple set of symbols revolutionised mathematics and commerce.

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Conclusion

By charting the journey of the numeral system from ancient India to the wider world, the article shows that the so‑called Arabic numerals are an Indian invention. The development of place‑value notation and the concept of zero represent one of the great intellectual achievements of human history.

Key passages

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“In fact, it was from the eighth century that progress of learning began with the Arabs ;from the eighth century to the thirteenth century - Muhammadism was to the western world what Rome and Athens and the Italo-Hellenic influence generally had been to the ancient civilisation”
“This distinctly suggests the -use of some form બો the abacus in the shape of a board—the well-known phalaka’—coloured black and ruled ready for. use so that calculaions could be made ૦0 it with a piece of chalk,”
“No records of any other country can furnish any instance of the existence of numerals at such an early date”

Works cited in this article

Literary and Scientific Activities under the Caliphate by 5. Khoda Buksh
Karpinski, Hindu Numerals
Libri, Histoire des Mathematiques, vol. I, 9: 174
J. A. S, B, 1908, pp. 293-297
Archweological Report of the Egypt Exploration Fund 1908-1909, London

Discussed in this article

People

Al-Biruni 6
Al-Khowarizmi
Adelhard
Pingala 12
Bhattotpala
Aryabhata 9
Al Fazari
Al-Mansur
Khowarizimi
al-Masudi 3
Muhammad ibn Musa
Halayudha 12
Weber 26
Whitney 19

Dynasties, sects & groups

Abbasides

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In this issue

Vol. 3 · No. 2

235–260Maskari as an Epithet of GosalaB. M. Barua 261–263Vijayanagara in Bengal TraditionRamesh Basu 264–272The Development of Buddhist Art in South IndiaDeva Prasad Ghosh 273–297Origin and Development of Dutakavya Literature in SanskritChintaharan Chakravarti 298–306Origins of Hindu IconismS. V. Venkateswara 307–314Pre-Upanisadic Teachers of Brahma-vidyaUmesh Chandra Bhattacharya 315–335The Evolution of the StateBala Krishna 336–355The Kalinga EdictManindra Mohan Bose 356–375The Origin and Development of NumeralsSukumar Ranjan DasCurrent article 376–394The Gaudi Riti in Theory and PracticeShiva Prasad Bhattacharya 395–403A Note on the Avantisundari Katha in relation to Bharavi and DandinSushil Kumar De 403–408Where Did Prince Vijaya Come FromKunwar Shivnath Singh Sengar 408–411Sri Magaradhvaja Yogi 700Hiralal Jain 412–412The Malla EraSushil Kumar De 413–417Mahavana and Hinayana Works Known to NagarjunaR. Kimura 418–418Rohitagiri in the Plate of Sri CandraNalini Kanta Bhattasali 419–428The Tibetan Translation of the Sadhanamala: A RejoinderVidhushekhara Bhattacharya 429–429Outlines of the History of Buddhism in Indo-ChinaRamesh Chandra Majumdar 429–432Recent Progress in Archaeology in South IndiaC. S. Srinivasachari 432–432Imprecatory Verses in Copper Plate GrantBatakrishna Ghosh 433–437ReviewsSushil Kumar De, U. N. Ghoshal, Chintaharan Chakravarti 438–439Select Contents of Oriental Journals 440–441Bibliographical Notes

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