Yaksa in Jaina Agamas

Ratnesh Kumar Varma’s article explores the conception of yakṣas in Jain scriptures. Yakṣas and yakṣiṇīs are powerful supernatural beings who act as attendants and guardians of the Jinas; they are classified among the vyantara gods and lokapālas in Jain cosmology. Although endowed with extraordinary abilities, they remain bound in the cycle of rebirths and thus cannot grant liberation. The article reviews references to yakṣas in the Ācārāṅga‐sūtra, Uttarādhyayana and other Āgamas, noting that the texts often warn ascetics not to be seduced by gods, asuras or yakṣas. Varma explains that early canonical texts list eight classes of vyantaras and describe yakṣas as wandering spirits who can be appeased with offerings. The article traces the development of yakṣa worship in medieval Jainism: by the 10th to 13th centuries certain yakṣa‑yakṣiṇī couples became so popular that independent temples were built for them and devotees sought their help for worldly benefits. The Jainworld encyclopaedia notes that early scriptures mention popular yakṣas like Maṇibhadra and Pūrnabhadra but cautions that worshipping them for material gain can distract from the true spiritual path. Varma lists the twenty‑four yakṣa‑yakṣiṇī pairs associated with each Tīrthaṅkara and analyses their iconography, weapons and mounts. He argues that while yakṣas play an important protective role, they should be honoured as devotees of the Jinas rather than as independent deities. The article concludes by emphasising that the veneration of yakṣas must be subordinate to the worship of the Jina and that true spiritual progress comes from observing the vows of non‑violence and self‑restraint rather than seeking favours from spirits.

Summary reviewed by a volunteer editor.